Contents

Title Page and Notice

NAS Statement

Committee, Board, and Commission Members

Preface

Acknowledgment of Reviewers

Executive Summary

Part I: The Federal Role in Computing Research

1 Introduction

 

Using History as a Guide
The Computing Revolution
 

Effects on the Economy
Technological Roots

Sources of U.S. Success
 

Research and Technological Innovation
Federal Policy Toward Research Funding
Other Mechanisms for Federal Support of Innovation

Issues Related to Federal Support of Research
Organization of This Report
Notes

2 Economic Perspectives on Public Support for Research

 

The Economic Rationale for Public Support of Civilian R&D
 

Information and Knowledge as Commodities
Capturing the Benefits of Research Investments
Technical Standards as Public Goods
Secrecy and Intellectual Property Rights
Common Pool Problems, Patent Races, and Potential Overinvestment in R&D

The Benefits of Public Support of Research
 

Direct Contributions to the Scientific Knowledge Base
Indirect Effects of Government-sponsored Research
 

Intellectual Assistance
Research as Training

Notes

3 Federal Support for Research Infrastructure

 

Federal Research Funding
 

Levels of Federal Support
Sources of Federal Support
Comparisons to Industrial Research Funding

Human Resources
Computer Facilities
 

University Computing Centers
Departmental Computing
High-performance Computing
Network Infrastructure

Effects of Federal Investments in Research Infrastructure
Conclusion
Notes

4 The Organization of Federal Support: A Historical Review

 

1945-1960: Era of Government Computers
 

The Government's Early Role
Establishment of Organizations
 

Military Research Offices
National Bureau of Standards
Atomic Energy Commission
Private Organizations

Observations

1960-1970: Supporting a Continuing Revolution
 

Maturing of a Commercial Industry
The Changing Federal Role
 

The Advanced Research Projects Agency
 

ARPA and Information Technology
ARPA's Management Style

National Science Foundation

1970-1990: Retrenching and International Competition
 

Computer Science, Computer Technology
The Changing Political Context
 

Science and Politics in the 1970s: A Changed Climate
Policy for the 1980s: Industrial Research and Competitiveness

Changes in the Organization of Federal Research Support
 

Changes at ARPA
 

Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits
Strategic Computing Initiative

Making a Science, Funding a Science: The NSF in the 1970s and 1980s
Other Federal Agencies in the 1970s and 1980s
SEMATECH
High-performance Computing

1990 and Beyond
Notes

5 Lessons from History

 

The Benefits of Federal Research Investments
 

Providing the Technology Base for Growing Industries
Maintaining University Research Capabilities
Creating Human Resources
Accomplishing Federal Missions

Characteristics of Effective Federal Support
 

Support for Long-range, Fundamental Research
Support for Efforts to Build Large Systems
Building on Industrial Research
Diverse Sources of Government Support
Strong Program Managers and Flexible Management Structures
Industry-University Collaboration
Organizational Innovation and Adaptation

Concluding Remarks
Notes

Part II: Case Studies in Computing Research

6 The Rise of Relational Databases

 

Background
 

Emergence of Computerized Databases
Early Efforts at Standardization

Emergence of the Relational Model
 

Codd's Vision
System R
Ingres

Diffusion and Commercialization of Relational Databases
Lessons from History
Notes

7 Development of the Internet and the World Wide Web

 

Early Steps: 1960-1970
Expansion of the ARPANET: 1970-1980
 

From ARPANET to Internet
Local Area Networks
Integrated Networking
Standards and Management
Closing the Decade

The NSFNET Years: 1980-1990
Emergence of the Web: 1990 to the Present
Lessons from History
Notes

8 Theoretical Research: Intangible Cornerstone of Computer Science

 

Machine Models: State Machines
Computational Complexity
Verifying Program Correctness
Cryptography
Lessons from History
Notes

9 Developments in Artificial Intelligence

 

The Private Sector Launches the Field
The Government Steps In
DARPA's Pivotal Role
Success in Speech Recognition
Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment
Artificial Intelligence in the 1990s
Lessons from History
Notes

10 Virtual Reality Comes of Age

 

Launching the Graphics and Virtual Reality Revolution
Seeding the Academic Talent Pool
Virtual Reality in the Private Sector: Approach with Caution
Synergy Launches the Quest for the "Holy Grail,"
Graphics Hardware: RISC Technology
Biomedical Applications
Virtual Reality and Entertainment: Toward a Commercial Industry
The Right Mix: Virtual Reality in the 1990s
Lessons from History
Notes

Bibliography

Appendix: Committee Biographies